INTRODUCTION TO FUNGI

INTRODUCTION

    Fungi are one group of microorganisms classified as eukaryotic. They have branched tubular bodies called hyphae. Fungi are heterotrophic which means they cannot make their own food so they can live as parasites, saprophytes and symbion. They can be divided into 2 categories which are fungal-like organisms (Protozoa and Chromista) and true fungi (Fungi). Fungi in Protozoa group is a primitive fungi because it has filamentous thallus while Chromista, Phylum Chytridiomycota and Zygomycota known as lower fungi because they have hyphae without cross walls (coenocytic). Phylum Ascomycota and Basidiomycota have septate hyphae because they are from a higher fungi kingdom. 

ACTIVITY 1: PREPARATION OF SLIDE FUNGI

1.1 : Material

• Lactophenol cotton blue (LCB)

• Alcohol 75%

• Phytophthora palmivora, Rhizopus sp., Chaetomium sp., Aspergillus sp., Sclerotium rolfsii

• Microscope 

• Slide and coverslip

• Inoculation needle

• Lamp

1.2 : Method

1. A clean slide and coverslip was prepared.

2. Inoculation needles were used to transfer the fungal specimen.

3. Sterilized inoculation needles using alcohol and burn to avoid contamination.

4. A drop of lactophenol cotton blue (LCB) was put on the slide.

5. Remove a small part of the culture onto the slide.

6. The cover slip was placed gently to prevent bubbles from getting trapped in the slide.

7. The slide was passed for a while on the lamp to remove the air bubble.

8. Observed the slide under the microscope with the lowest magnification.

1.3 Result

No	Picture	Explanation
1	Phytophthora palmivora	Phylum: Oomycota Class: Oomycetes P. palmivora causes diseases including fruit rots, stem cankers, leaf and seedling blights (in the nursery stage) and root rots of tropical plants.  P. palmivora infects multiple hosts that hold an economic significance including cacao, coconut, papaya, mango, durian, and black pepper, coconut, and citrus. P. palmivora thrives under humid wet conditions, and as a result can cause significant losses in many economically important tropical fruit crops.
2	Rhizopus sp.	Phylum: Zygomycota Class: Zygomycetes  Rhizopus sp. plays a significant role in the carbon cycle due to its ability to decompose organic material. Rhizopus sp. in pellet form may function as a robust production strain in the process of fermenting liquids, resisting the inhibitors that are likely to be present in lignocellulosic hydrolysates. Some of the Rhizopus sp. (Rhizopus stolonifer) can cause fruit rot on strawberry, tomato, and sweet potato and is used in commercial production of fumaric acid and cortisone.
3	Chaetomium sp .	Phylum: Ascomycota Class: Pyrenomycetes Chaetomium sp. is a genus of which is a dematiaceous (dark-walled) mold normally found in soil, air, cellulose and plant debris. Chaetomium sp. can produce ergosterol that can be promoted to increase soil fertility and high organic matter. Several fungal biofertilizers have been formulated for commercial production (e.g. Chaetomium sp.) as it plays important roles to increase plant growth, yield and induce plant immunity and proved to be safe for human beings and the environment.
4	Aspergillus sp.	Phylum: Ascomycota Class: Plectomycetes Aspergillus sp. is a fungus that aids the plant in phosphate uptake but also induces growth promotion through the production of biologically active compounds including gibberellins and auxins. Aspergillus sp. used in conjunction with other microorganisms to induce additive effects on all aspects of plant growth and development, induce systemic resistance, and significantly reduce the stress experienced by the plant. However, the aflatoxins produced by mycelia of these fungi can contaminate agricultural products such as peanut, maize, rice, and derived products because they are opportunistic pathogens, most of them are encountered as storage molds on plant products.
5	Sclerotium rolfsii	Phylum: Ascomycota Class: Deuteromycetes S. rolfsii is a necrotrophic soil borne plant pathogen, killing plant tissues in advance of colonization by production of oxalic acid and cell-wall degrading enzymes. S. rolfsii causes diseases including crown and lower stem rot, root decay, tuber, bulb, and fleshy organ rot, fruits and leaves. Disease caused by S. rolfsii can be very destructive to numerous vegetable and fruit crops, especially tomato, pepper, melon, and watermelon.

ACTIVITY 2: OBSERVATION OF PREPARED SLIDE

2.1 : Material

• Prepared slide of fungi

• Microscope 

2.2 : Method

1. The slide was put on the microscope and was observed

2. The observation was recorded 

2.3 : Result

No	Picture	Explanation (Morphology characteristic)
1	Phytophthora sp. (sex)	Phylum Oomycota  Sexual reproduction Oospore with thick wall Sexual reproduction is oogamous and takes place by antheridia and oogonia
2	Phytophthora sp. (asex)	Phylum Oomycota Asexual reproduction Zoospores in sporangia Asexual reproduction takes place by conidiosporangia developed on branched conidiophores or sporangiophores. Sporangiophores are the branched hyphae which come out through the stomata of the host leaf. Each sporangium is an oval, multinucleate structure with a short stalk. A thin, hyaline papilla is present at the tip of each sporangium.
3	Rhizopus sp. (sex)	Phylum Zygomycota Zygospores: Sexual spores which are enclosed in a thick, resistant wall. Occurs through conjunction, the joining of hypha of two different strains.  When environmental conditions deteriorate, sexual reproduction may occur. Hyphae from opposite mating types produce structures that contain several haploid nuclei.  The zygosporangium then germinates to produce a sporangium which releases haploid spores.
4	Rhizopus sp. (asex)	Phylum Zygomycota Structure sex: Sporangiospores Hundreds formed within a sac (sporangium) at the end of an aerial hyphae. For example, Bread Mold. It involves mycelia producing sporangia that produce haploid spores by mitosis. The spores produce new mycelia.
5	Erysiphe sp. (sex)	Phylum Ascomycota Structure sex: Cleistothecium Mostly this microbe is a plant pathogen that can cause powdery mildew. They are host specific, biothropic and obligate parasites.
6	Erysiphe sp. (asex)	Phylum Ascomycota With the establishment of the ectomycelium on the surface of the host, the fungal parasite starts reproducing asexually during the growing season by producing asexual spores known as conidia. The conidia are formed exogenously in chains at the tip of the conidial apparatus.
7	Saccharomycetes sp.	Phylum Ascomycota Brewer's yeast Asexually reproduction is through budding or binary fission (common reproduction) Sexual reproduction results in the formation of the appropriate spore structure. Used in fermentation of bread and alcoholic beverages, production of ethanol for car fuel. Can cause Candida (oral infection)
8	Chaetomium sp.	Chaetomium cupreum is known only as a sexually reproducing species and no asexual form has been reported   A.                Sexual reproduction: Involves the formation of ascogonia arising as lateral outgrowths of the vegetative mycelium.  In early developmental stages, the ascogonia are coiled and coenocytic with septa forming as the ascogonia matures.  The terminal cell of each ascogonium will become a long trichogyne which functions as the receptive organ.  Male reproductive structures, antheridia are commonly absent in Chaetomium.
9	Peziza sp.	A. Asexual reproduction: Take places by conidia and chlamydospores. The conidia are formed exogenously at the tip of conidiophores. Conidia germinate to form the new mycelium.   B. Sexual reproduction: Takes place by means of antheridium and ascogonium. Sexual fusion results in a bright coloured, cup-shaped, large and sessile apothecial type of fruiting body.
10	Fusarium sp.	Phylum Ascomycota Most Fusarium sp. are soil fungi. Some are plant pathogens that can cause root and stem rot, vascular wilt or fruit rot. Produce both microconidia and macroconidia from slender phialides.
11	Penicillium sp.	A. Sexual reproduction Vegetative mycelium grows 2 hyphal cells tube Ascospores form from fused cells by meiosis Ascus opens to release ascospores Ascospores germinates to produce hyphae.   B. Asexual reproduction: Hypha produces conidiophore Conidiospores are released from conidiophore Conidiospore germinates to produce hyphae
12	Puccinia graminis - Level 0	Phylum Basidiomycota Stages 0: Piknia Causes wheat rust disease Obligate parasite species.
13	Puccinia graminis - Level 1	Phylum Basidiomycota Stages 1: Caesium and aeciospore Causes wheat rust disease Obligate parasite species.
14	Puccinia graminis - Level 2	Phylum Basidiomycota Stages 2: Uredium and uredospore Causes wheat rust disease Obligate parasite species.
15	Puccinia graminis - Level 3	Phylum Basidiomycota Stages 3: Telium and teliospores Causes wheat rust disease Obligate parasite species.
16	Volvariella sp.	Phylum Basidiomycota Can be found in wood chips, compost, greenhouses, and gardens when conditions are right. These fungi can be eaten and commercially sell
17	Rigidoporus lignosus	Phylum Basidiomycota Can cause white root disease in rubber trees.
18	Puccinia maydis	Phylum: Basidiomycota Cause Rust disease. Example in Maize rust, Stem Rust of Wheat Obligate pathogens require the host to survive. Disease development is favored by cool, moist weather (60 – 70◦ F). Cannot exist as saprophytes as spores needed as the host is absent.  In most rust fungi, only the teliospores are adapted to survive apart from a living host plant for more than a few months under field conditions. Prediction of inoculum from the pattern of the rust disease.